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Self-contained breathing apparatus (S.C.B.A.) in years past was considered a tool used only by those firefighters of less ability, a tool of shame if you will. Today, the modern fireground reflects one of many lessons learned from our predecessors, S.C.B.A. usage as a norm, rather than that of exception.

Today's firefighters are faced with a greater risk of inhalation hazards due to the many byproducts of combustion, some of which were never before imagined. Unfortunately, many lives continue to be lost despite the advancements in technology as it pertains to self-contained breathing apparatus and the strictly written national standards and departmental operating procedures/guidelines. In the year 2000 alone, five (5) firefighters lost their lives due to inhalation related injuries and several others died from asphyxiation following structural collapses.

In response to the continuously high rate of firefighter injuries and/or fatalities linked to respiratory related incidents, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) adopted the highly debated 29 CFR 1910.134 regulation on respiratory protection in April of 1998. To many, this standard is recognized solely for it's infamous 2 in / 2 out ruling. Unfortunately, few have properly identified what this regulation brings forth as it pertains to respiratory protection and S.C.B.A. training for the modern firefighter.

This article and the associated drill sessions have been designed to identify and set forth a training program that supports compliance with this regulation and it's required S.C.B.A. usage and competency training.

*This article/program is in no way offered as a full-fledged respiratory protection program, rather a suggested training program to meet specific competency requirements set forth in OSHA CFR 1910.134 and the other applicable NFPA standards.

PRESENTATION:

The use of self-contained breathing apparatus is considered a basic tool of the firefighting trade. Unfortunately, with this general assumption comes a complacent mindset and lack luster efforts in annual training and proficiency testing. The unending respiratory hazards faced by the modern firefighter bring forth a need for continuous evaluations in the use and proficiency of self-contained breathing apparatus. As trainers, we must design and develop drills that challenge and motivate those experienced members while maintaining a high degree of realism.

This article will provide a detailed training simulation that reinforces personal proficiency while emphasizing standardized emergency techniques to be initiated when encountering a sudden hazardous event on the fireground.

SPECIFIC SECTIONS OF 29 CFR 1910.134 ADDRESSED IN THIS PROGRAM:

(k) Training and information. This paragraph requires the employer to provide effective training to employees who are required to use respirators. The training must be comprehensive, understandable, and recur annually, and more often if necessary.

• (k)(1) The employer shall ensure that each employee can demonstrate knowledge of at least the following:
  
  
  • (k)(1)(i) Why the respirator is necessary and how improper fit, usage, or maintenance can compromise the protective effect of the respirator;
    
    
  • (k)(1)(ii) What the limitations and capabilities of the respirator are;
    
    
  • (k)(1)(iii) How to use the respirator effectively in emergency situations, including situations in which the respirator malfunctions;
    
    
  • (k)(1)(iv) How to inspect, put on and remove, use, and check the seals of the respirator;
    
    
• (k)(2) The training shall be conducted in a manner that is understandable to the employee.
  
  
• (k)(3) The employer shall provide training prior to requiring the employee to use a respirator in the workplace.
  
  
• (k)(4) An employer who is able to demonstrate that a new employee has received training within the last 12 months that addresses the elements specified in paragraph (k)(1)(i) through (vii) is not required to repeat such training provided that, as required by paragraph (k)(1), the employee can demonstrate knowledge of those element(s). Previous training not repeated initially by the employer must be provided no later that 12 months from the date of the previous training.
  
  
• (k)(5) Retraining shall be administered annually, and when the following situations occur:
  
  
  • (k)(5)(i) Changes in the workplace or the type of respirator render previous training obsolete;
    
    
  • (k)(5)(ii) Inadequacies in the employee's knowledge or use of the respirator indicate that the employee has not retained requisite understanding or skill; or
    
    
  • (k)(5)(iii) Any other situation arises in which retraining appears necessary to ensure safe respirator use.

Psychological and Physiological problems - In order to become and/or maintain proficiency in the use of an S.C.B.A., a firefighter must overcome any psychological or physiological barriers associated with the operation and use of an S.C.B.A. Although few firefighters will openly admit it, we all face these barriers to some degree. Psychological barriers might include simple hyperventilation during stressful or complicated operations that may lead to a rapid decrease in operational work time, dizziness and/or lightheadedness. Physiological barriers might include an episode of claustrophobia due to the unusually tight working conditions or inability to determine his/her surroundings. Typically these problems are the direct result of improper or insufficient training early on in ones career. Regardless of their causes, we as trainers must quickly identify these issues amongst our members and attempt to remedy them with safe and effective training methods. S.C.B.A. confidence training takes time and each individual must be allowed to progress at an acceptable pace to ensure these barriers are identified and overcome successfully.

COMPETENCY BASED SKILLS:

S.C.B.A. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS:

Throughout a firefighters career he/she will face a variety of equipment failures that may jeopardize his/her safety if not quickly corrected. No such failure is equal to that of an S.C.B.A. emergency during a firefighting operation. Today's firefighters must maintain a high degree of confidence and personal proficiency in handling S.C.B.A. emergencies. The following; although not comprehensive, is a list of the most common S.C.B.A. emergencies encountered by firefighters and some suggested solutions for each:

PLEASE NOTE: The four (4) most critical actions in each of these situations are:

1. Remain CALM
2. Notify Your Partner/Command
3. Activate Your P.A.S.S. Alarm
4. Search For/Find An Exit

1. Close the door to the room (if possible) to lesson fire impingement.
   
   
2. Using the Halligan Bar, break a hole through the first layer of sheetrock.
   
   
3. Lift the Halligan Bar to an upright position (forcing the tool into the wall, while holding the pike end).
   
   
4. Forcefully pull down on the pike end (using a can opener motion to enlarge the opening).
   
   
5. Remove the Halligan Bar.
   
   
6. Place both hands (wide grip - one high, one low) inside the opening and pull towards your body.
   
   
7. While on all fours, turn and reverse kick the wall section to remove the remaining section.
   
   
8. Check the floor stability with the Halligan Bar.
   
   
9. Check environment - tenable/untenable, floor stability, etc.
   
   
10. Secure the Halligan Bar on the opposing side of the obstacle.
    
    
11. Reduce profile proceed through the wall opening.

• Fully loosen the right shoulder strap and remove it.
• Loosen the waist strap to allow the harness assembly to be rotated around to your left hip.
• Grasp the neck of the cylinder with your left hand.
• Rotate the harness assembly to the left to allow you to pass through the obstacle.
• Proceed through the obstacle.
• Don the S.C.B.A. (tighten both shoulder straps and waist belt).

• Fully loosen the waist belt (and disconnect the buckle), and both shoulder straps.
• Remove the right shoulder strap, then the left shoulder strap
• Maintain a firm grip on the left should strap Reduce your profile (rotate to the left w/ your right shoulder facing the obstacle).
• Proceed through the obstacle pulling your S.C.B.A. assembly through with your left hand.
• Don the S.C.B.A. (tighten both shoulder straps and waist belt).

• Rotate around to a position where your cylinder is facing the obstacle.
• Place the cylinder into the opening while rotating your right shoulder and foot through the opening.
• Proceed through with your left shoulder and left foot.
• Readjust your S.C.B.A. as necessary.

Skills Reinforced:

Emergency egress techniques - The emphasis of this drill is to reinforce the concept of maintaining and/or creating a secondary means of egress while further emphasizing the need for firefighters to carry forcible EXIT tools during every firefight.

Emergency escape techniques - The concept of reduced profiles has been taught for many years, continual retraining enhances personal confidence while providing several alternatives for firefighters who become trapped following a sudden hazardous event such as a collapse, or rapid fire develop - i.e. flashover.

ATTIC SIMULATOR W/SCUTTLE ACCESS

Simulation: As a firefighter you're required to enter into an attic space to check for extension and/or to advance a hose line for fire attack.

Activity Steps:

1. Assume a low position (roll on your back or a left lateral position).
2. Proceed forward to the identified opening (space between joist assembly).
3. Grasp the joist assembling with both hands while rotating your S.C.B.A. assembly to position that allows the cylinder to pass through the opening. Depending on the member's physical size, a full escape procedure may be necessary.
4. Pull yourself up through the assembly and assume a balanced position atop the joist assembly.
5. Readjust your S.C.B.A. straps as necessary.

Emergency escape techniques and reduced profiling - Although these techniques are presented as means of emergency escape, many of these reduced profiling techniques can be and oftentimes are deployed during normal operations on the fire ground. Particular emphasis should be placed on establishing user proficiency while preventing compromise of the personal protective ensemble.

LARGE BOX - LOW PROFILE CRAWL

Simulation: As a firefighter/rescuer, you're involved in a structural collapse in which you're trapped in a small void space, in an effort to self-rescue you must assume a reduced profile and proceed through a narrow opening.

Activity Steps:

1. Proceed forward; identify the size and shape of the opening.
2. Perform a full-escape maneuver as described earlier.
3. Maintain a firm grip on your S.C.B.A. with your left hand.
4. Push the S.C.B.A. (cylinder valve first) through the opening.
5. Lower your left ear to the floor while assuming a kneeling position (torso elevated).
6. Allow your helmet to clear the obstruction and proceed forward while laying flat on the floor.
7. Once you have cleared the obstruction, maintain a firm grip on the left shoulder strap (hold tightly to the left breast) roll in a counter clockwise motion (onto the S.C.B.A.) to allow the right shoulder strap to fall into position for donning.
8. Tighten your shoulder straps and waist belt to a position of comfort.

Although no specific case based incidents have been identified, structural collapses of floors, walls, and truss assemblies continue to kill firefighters. This simulation is designed to teach firefighters how to effectively overcome the confines of a lean-to or V shaped collapse situation in which he/she may be trapped within a void space. As an additional note, this simulation also enables more timid firefighters to overcome the fears of restrictive spaces in a safe and controlled training environment.

Skills Reinforced:

Emergency escape techniques and reduced profiling - The idea of working in tight and/or confined area is something many firefighters fear, yet seldom speak openly about. This simulation provides those less vocal members with an opportunity to develop confidence when encountering such a situation while at the same time providing a continuous challenge to those more experienced members.

ATTIC SIMULATOR W/ ENTANGLEMENT HAZARD

Scenario: As a firefighter/rescuer, you become trapped or entangled in flexible spiral ductwork, and cable TV wiring, in order to escape you must successfully overcome the entanglement hazard.

Activity Steps:

1. Stop forward movement!!!
2. Take one step back (identify the entanglement hazard, if possible)
3. Assume a left lateral position w/ your S.C.B.A. cylinder at or near the floor.
4. Rotate you arm (beginning at your waist) in a backstroke swimming motion.
   a. Lift entanglement up and over your head/cylinder
   b. Proceed forward
   c. Notify crewmembers of the hazard - assist as necessary.
   
5. If still unsuccessful:
   a. Rotate ¼ turn clockwise (Continue to rotate until obstruction is identified)
   CAUTION: Do not rotate more than half way around.
   b. Rotate your arm again (reverse stroke motion)
   c. Lift entanglement up and over your head/cylinder.
   d. Proceed forward
   e. Notify crewmembers of hazard - assist as necessary.
   f. If still unsuccessful, rotate counter clockwise ¼ turn
   g. If still unsuccessful, remove the S.C.B.A. harness and attempt to disentangle and/or cut the obstruction using lineman's pliers.
   PRIOR TO REMOVING YOUR S.C.B.A. HARNESS:
   1. Notify command
   2. Consider activating your P.A.S.S. alarm
   

Memphis, TN - 2 Firefighters died in a residential high-rise structure due to asphyxiation. One (1) firefighter was found in a hallway near an exit entrapped by cable TV wires that had fallen from the ceiling after plastic support clamps melted. This simulation is designed to teach firefighters how to effectively overcome the common entanglement hazards encountered on the modern fireground.

Skills Reinforced:

Self-rescue techniques for entanglement hazards - The emphasis of this drill is to provide the entangled member with a step-by-step approach on how to successfully overcome the reoccurring hazards of entanglements. Particular emphasis should be given to notifying command early to ensure a rapid response of a Safety Engine/RIT rescue team to ensure your immediate rescue if self-rescue efforts fail.

SMALL BOX W/ MULTIPLE LOW PROFILE OBSTRUCTIONS / HOLE

Simulation: As a firefighter/rescuer, you're involved in a structural collapse in which your trapped in a small void space, in an effort to self-rescue you must assume a reduced profile and proceed through a narrow opening followed by an immediate decent into a small opening in the floor assembly.

Activity Steps:

1. Proceed forward; identify the size and shape of the opening.
2. Perform a full-escape maneuver as described earlier.
3. Maintain a firm grip on your S.C.B.A. with your left hand.
4. Push the S.C.B.A. (cylinder valve first) through the opening (maintain a firm grip on the S.C.B.A. assembly with your left-hand.
5. Lower your left ear to the floor while positioning yourself in a near kneeling position (torso elevated).
6. Allow your helmet to clear the obstruction(s) and proceed forward while laying flat on the floor.
7. Once you have cleared the obstruction, maintain a firm grip on the left shoulder strap.
8. Lower your S.C.B.A. into the hole (positioning left or right - based on direction of travel).
9. Proceed head first into the hole (lead with the shoulder opposite of the direction you intend on going - i.e. going right, lead with the left shoulder.
10. Rotate your torso as you proceed through the opening.
11. Continue crawling to the opening in a low profile position, leading with the S.C.B.A. cylinder valve first.

No specific case based incidents have been directly related to this simulation, operating in and overcoming void space limitations are hazards a firefighter may encounter if he/she is involved in a structural collapse. This simulation is designed to identify personal limitation and capabilities when working in void spaces following a lean-to or V shaped collapse situation. As an additional note, this simulation also enables the firefighter to understand the limitations of his/her protective ensemble while working in such an environment.

Skills Reinforced:

Reduced profiling - This simulation requires the participant to manipulate their body through multiple obstacles while keeping their protective ensemble in check. The concept of reduced profiling and/or full escape maneuvers enables the participant to overcome the obstacles in a safe and effective manner. This simulation will very quickly identify any fear of restrictive motion (i.e. claustrophobia) while at the same time; establish self-confidence and personal satisfaction upon completion.

T-BOX - LOW PROFILE SIMULATOR

Simulation: As a firefighter/rescuer, you're involved in a collapse situation which requires you to assume a low profile while crawling towards an exit.

Activity Steps:

1. Assume a prone position with your S.C.B.A. assembly placed in front of you.
2. Maintain a firm grip on the left shoulder strap.
3. Begin crawling to the identified opening, if obstructed, back up and locate the next available opening (feet first) and exit.
4. Upon exiting, maintain a firm grip on the left shoulder strap (hold tightly to the left breast), roll in a counter clockwise motion (onto the S.C.B.A.) to allow the right shoulder strap to fall into position for donning.
5. Tighten your shoulder straps and waist belt to a position of comfort.

No specific case based incidents have been identified for this simulation, but as stated earlier, the skill of reduced profile maneuvers in restrictive spacing are skills every firefighter should attempt to master.

Skills Reinforced:

Emergency escape techniques and reduced profiling - This simulation is designed reinforce the participants confidence in reduced profile maneuvers during void space operations. A continued emphasis should be placed on the concept of self-survival and emergency escape operations.

SUMMARY:

The use of an S.C.B.A. is a requirement of nearly every firefighter across the country on a daily basis. S.C.B.A. usage and training is oftentimes considered basic by nature; S.C.B.A. confidence is a proficiency level every firefighter and trainer must continually strive to achieve. All too often in this repetitive based profession, we find ourselves challenged by the restraints of time and personal commitment in areas thought to be of greater concern; as firefighters working in an ever changing society, we must constantly be reminded of the fact that no commitment is greater then that of our personal safety and survival. Our confidence in these basic skills provides us with that highly sought after edge which enhances our safety, the safety of our crewmembers, and ultimately the safety of the men and women we are sworn to protect.

DEDICATION:

As I conclude this article, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to the brothers and sisters of the Memphis, TN, Pittsburgh, PA, and Missouri City, TX Fire Departments for sharing with us the many lessons learned and the tragic events that led to their injury or loss through the various video clips, articles, and investigative reports that have circulated the fire service. This article is dedicated to ensuring that we the fire service learn from the past in hopes of providing a safer future.

REFERENCES:

• American Heat Video, 750 Adams, October 1994, Volume 9, Program 4
• International Fire Service Training Association (1998) Essentials of Firefighting (4th Edition), Oklahoma State University, Fire Protection Publications, Stillwater, OK
• International Society of Fire Service Instructors, Instruct-O-Gram (1981, Oct.) S.C.B.A. III A Systematic Method of Training, Volume II, Issue 10, Ashland, MA
• International Society of Fire Service Instructors, Instruct-O-Gram (1984, Dec.) S.C.B.A. IV "Emergency Procedure Training" Volume V, Issue 12, Ashland, MA
• Occupational Safety & Heath Administration. OSHA 29 CFR 1910.134 Respiratory Protection Standard, Occupational Safety & Health Administration, U.S. Department of Labor
• Fornell, David P. (1994, Sept.) Memphis High-rise Firefighter Deaths: Few New Lessons, Fire Chief, p. 74, 76, 78
• Norman, John (1998). Fire Officer's Handbook of Tactics (2nd Edition), PennWell Publishing Company, Saddlebrook, NJ
• Salka, John (1993, Sept.) S.C.B.A. Competence and Confidence, Fire Engineering, p. 25-31
• United States Fire Administration, Emmitsburg, Maryland, USFA Technical Report - Three Firefighters Die in Pittsburgh House Fire

About The Author

Tim is a 17-year student and educator of the fire & emergency services currently working as the Chief of Fire Training for Savannah Fire & Emergency Services, Georgia. Tim formerly served as Assistant Fire Chief for Missouri City Fire & Rescue Services, Texas and as a Firefighter/Paramedic with the Kansas City, Kansas Fire Department. Tim has earned B.S. degrees in Fire Administration, Arson and an A.S. degree in Emergency Medical Care from Eastern Kentucky University.

Tim is a contributing editor to numerous publications including the International Society of Fire Service Instructors (ISFSI) monthly publication The Voice, Firehouse.com Members Zone, and the Fire & Emergency Television Network (FETN) in which he is the writer/developer of the featured "SURVIVAL!" program.

In July 2002, Tim was awarded the prestigious Innovator of the Year Award from the International Society of Fire Service Instructors (ISFSI) for his innovative training ideas and concepts in the area of firefighter safety & survival. In 2001, Tim was awarded the George Hughes Award from the Texas Association of Fire Educators for his accomplishments as a speaker and trainer in the state of Texas.

Tim is currently the First Vice-President of the ISFSI, and a student of the National Fire Academy's Executive Fire Officer (EFO) Program.

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